No Clear Link Between TV Violence and Aggression Essay

No Clear Link Between Television Violence and Aggression There is a great deal of speculation on the role of television violence in childhood aggression. Research demonstrates there may be other intervening variables causing aggression. These variables include IQ, social class, parental punishment, parental aggression, hereditary, environmental, and modeling. With all of these factors to taken into consideration it is difficult to determine a causal relationship between television violence and aggression. It is my hypothesis this relationship is bi-directional - violent television causes aggressive behavior and aggressive people tend to watch more violent television. Over the years there has been†¦show more content†¦Subjects in the aggression condition reproduced a good deal of physical and verbal aggressive behavior resembling that of the models. The data clearly confirmed the prediction that exposure of subjects to aggressive models increases the probability of aggressive behavior (Bandura et al. 1961). Another study sought to determine the extent to which film- mediated aggressive models may serve as an important source of imitative behavior. Children were divided and then exposed to four different aggression models. A real-life aggression condition, a human film- aggression condition, a cartoon film-aggression condition, and a control group. The results showed that exposure to humans on film portraying aggression was the most influential in eliciting aggressive behavior. Subjects in this condition, in comparison to the control subjects, exhibited more aggression and more imitative aggression. Subjects who viewed the aggressive human and cartoon models on film exhibited almost twice as much aggression as subjects in the control group. These results provide strong evidence that exposure to filmed aggression heightens aggressive reactions in children (Bandura et al. 1963a). These results add to the conclusion that viewing violent television produces aggressive behavior. But,Show MoreRelatedThe Hidden Danger: Violence Within The Media. Imagine You1141 Words   |  5 PagesThe Hidden Danger: Violence Within the Media Imagine you are fast asleep and dreaming. In your dream, you are surrounded by violence everywhere and cannot seem to avoid it no matter where you run. You awaken and ask yourself, was that a dream? You suddenly realize that this wasn t a dream, but everyday life. Whenever a person flips on the television, scrolls through a social media network, or just listens to the radio, it seems one cannot avoid being exposed to some sort of violent material. HoweverRead More Is Violence in Films Responsible For Childrens Agressive Behavior?1021 Words   |  5 PagesIs Violence in Films Responsible For Childrens Agressive Behavior? Violence on screen is often offered to the young population, which responds to it in so different ways. Childrens psychological development is based on social experiences and imitations. Children are influenced either by their families (direct source of influence) or by their surroundings (indirect source of influence). The question I will be exploring is the responsibility of the violence in films in children’s aggressiveRead MoreThe Effects Of Media Violence On People1388 Words   |  6 PagesMedia Violence on People Media violence impacts the physical aggression of human beings. It is one of the many potential factors that influence the risk for violence and aggression. Research has proven that aggression in children will cause the likelihood of aggression in their adulthood. Theories have evolved that the violence present in the media most likely teaches the viewer to be more violent. It is a risky behavior that is established from the childhood. Furthermore, media violence is a publicRead MoreThe Effects of Television Violence on Children1315 Words   |  6 Pagesmany illustrating how televised violence can spark violent behavior. Violence in society is a complex problem, and numerous sources can be cited for blame. If control is to be gained, one obvious place to begin is television, for television violence can promote violence in those who see it. This is especially true for our children and the programming provided for them. Many people claim that no cause and effect link can be established between violence seen on television and behaviorsRead MoreThe Criminal Justice System: Media Violence and Social Justice724 Words   |  3 Pagesaggressive and violent. According to such articles, violent content provokes aggressive behavior and violence. Ferguson illustrates that watching satanic content, like in Harry Potter, or teaching of witchcraft can lead to Satanism or mental illness. According to Ferguson (2008), books, rock, jazz, television and watching movies in the media, leads to a wave of moral degradation, rebelliousness and violence. They also clam that new media like internet and video games inevitably cause fear and waves ofRead MoreMedia Violence And Crime Violence1168 Words   |  5 PagesMedia Violence and Crimes There are few debates that have been contentious for so long as the debate of whether violent medias contribute meaningfully to crimes. Because of the majority of shooting events committed by younger shooters, many politicians regard cultural effects as a potential contributing factor, while others dismiss media as a contributing factor. Within the social science community, a similar division exists (Ferguson, 2015). For example, some professional supporting groups, likeRead MoreViolent Video Games Are Violent1677 Words   |  7 Pagesvideo games are violent and should be banned. Many people aren’t sure how violent video games cause people to be violent, but perhaps they’re sure there can be a connection. People are arguing that the first-person shooting games are truly promoting violence which making it more likely to become. First-person shooter games are when the player experiences the action through the eyes of the hero. Some scientist has said that â€Å"in an e xperiment that some of the violent games do increase people anger andRead MoreThe Effects of Television Violence on Children Essay1338 Words   |  6 Pages Thesis Statement: Unsupervised children who watch violence on television exhibit violence in their everyday lives and develop into aggressive adults. â€Å"Research shows that television violence increases levels of aggression, fear, and desensitization among some who consume it† (Hamilton). This quotation by James Hamilton briefly summarizes the potentially negative effects of television on young minds. A child’s favorite television show can keep a child occupied while the mother preparesRead MoreDesensitization From Lack Of Discretion1614 Words   |  7 Pagestyrannical government, loss of freedoms such as our freedom of speech and our freedom of press, and a stronger presence of authority in our lives on the one side. On the other side our country’s moral fabric could come apart, there could be a rise in violence, and the innocence of our children is at risk. It is the innocence of our children that we are going to take a closer look at. What part does uncensored media play in the desensitization of our youth? Why should we be concerned about this issue?Read MoreCause-and-Effect Relationship between TV Violence and Actual Crimes1755 Words   |  7 Pages What evidence do you find in these essays that establishes a cause- and effect relationship between TV violence and actual crimes? The subject of violence and sexuality on television has remained of great concern for both liberals and conservatives, and there are advocates on both sides of the issue in each ideological camp. While some liberals bridle at any attempts to curtail speech, others are concerned about the impact that violent television viewing has upon impressionable viewers like

Essay on The End of Oppression for Jamaican Women

The End of Oppression for Jamaican Women Women have been oppressed in many places and in many different ways over the years, but in Jamaica this continuing trend is finally to be broken. Sexual or gender inequality represents as essential and integral feature of social relations and culture construction in Jamaica, where for the past four hundred years colonial and imperialist exploitation has governed the development of economic, political, and sociocultural patterns and structures.(Harrison: Women in Jamaicas Urban Informal Economy pg. 12) Women have different roles in politics, economics and religion than their counterparts. It is important to know not just the general role of women, but it is also important to know where they†¦show more content†¦These were the Maroons. Nanny was a strong woman who helped to rescue many slaves and to bring them to a safe place, which was called Nanny Town. Nanny Town was in the hills in Portland, Jamaica, which is now Moore Town. Nanny fought for many years beside these men. Back then she was treated as an equal. They fought side by side for their freedom and land. Nanny was a leader, she led her people to victory by using her mind. Nanny soon became known as Mother of the people Because she did so many unselfish acts. Nanny is also known as Grandy Nanny. The Maroon men fought while the women planted and grew food. This shows how far back gender biases go. This was the traditional role of women in many societies in history in many countries. Men were always the hunters and w omen the gatherers. Nanny and the Maroons lost Nanny Town for a short span of time to colonial forces, but they were able to recapture the town by using guerilla warfare. Nanny was later forced to have her people sign a peace-treaty with the English, and met an untimely death by the English around 1734. Both legends and documents refer to her (Nanny) as having exceptional leadership qualities. She was a small wiry woman with piercing eyes. Her influence over the Maroons was so strong that it seemed to be supernatural and was said to be connected to her powers of obeah. She was particularly skilled in organizing the guerillaShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Movie The Band Played On 1261 Words   |  6 Pagescommunity experienced, the plight of the medical community in investigating the disease and the issue of government response to it. The movie contains various forms of oppression, especially to the gay community. The US government did not support the gay community and, as a result, AIDs was associated with them which brought about oppression against sexual orientation (Curran, 56). When AIDs has discovered the gay community suffered at the hands of social alienation, the name AIDs singled out the gay communityRead MoreSlavery in Jamaica Essay4444 Words   |  18 Pagesjammed himself onto the beaches of Jamaica, reggae music was born. A continuing tradition, this easy-to-groove-to music style originated as a voice against this oppression; it was the peaceful islanders way of finally communicating their plighted history to all who would listen, or all who could appreciate a good beat. Much of this oppression came in the time of slavery; a period of nearly two hundred years where those of a dark skin were considered property of the light skinned ones, inferior in allRead MoreEssay On Self Identity1866 Words   |  8 Pages- Columbian time period will be paralleled with my childhood where I was able to experience life fully and unrestricted. A point in which my black identity was defined by my Jamaican roots. This ability to define my own self-identity was stolen from me when I migrated to the United States. In the United States , my Jamaican heritage was categorized under the homogenizing label of black. A term that did not fully encompass my identity, but one I was nonetheless assigned because of my African rootsRead MoreAnalysis Of The Poem America By Claude Mckay1399 Words   |  6 Pagesby saying, â€Å"her vigor flows like tides into my blood/giving me strength erect against her hate†(America,5,6). These lines caused me to think that Claude McKay might have been a minority, and after doing some research I discovered, he is in fact, Jamaican-American. He says he was given strength against her hate, he was in a group of oppressed individuals and through the hate he received from America he was strengthened, like giving your enemy a cash of supplies to be used against you. After beingRead MoreQueen Nanny Of The Windward Maroons2579 Words   |  11 PagesFirst Maroon War. Though, not originally from Jamaican, but brought to Jamaica during the time of slavery, she never received her freedom legally until a treaty was reached between the Maroons and the British. Nanny became, known for her organized plans to keep and free the Maroons along with other tribal African from slavery. This led to the freedom of also most 1000 slaves remaining free during the time of slavery in history. During the Era, women are seen as second-class citizens and slavesRead More Neocolonialism in Jamaica Essay6862 Words   |  28 Pagesprovide raw materials and goods for the Mother Country. In addition, a general consumer market was developed to send wealth to Europe and allow for capital accumulation, all for the benefit of the colonizers. Slavery represents an important part of Jamaican history and the cultivated dominant atmosphere. For one, plantations highly depended on slave labor to maximize profit margins. Between 1655 and 1808 one million slaves were forcefully brought to Jamaica (Waters, 1985: 21-23). Persaud (2001: 72)Read More Colonization and the Black Mans Struggle Essay5469 Words   |  22 Pagesenslavement of the Africans, however, created a legacy of oppression and tyranny that carried on much longer after the abolition of the systems. The reason for this is that African slaves were not looked upon as humans at all, but as a commodity that could be abused and sold purely for the purpose of making a profit. In most other instances of slavery throughout history motives like religion and love for a king drove the souls of the men and women laborers. This is the major striking difference betweenRead MoreThe Crime Of The Drugs Essay1899 Words   |  8 Pages might piss on you for fun, and some of them a re decent human beings. Good luck finding out which is which, though. There’s such a legion of marketing agents, publicists, and handlers between them and you that you can scarcely tell where the brand ends and the person begin. In a way I feel sorry for many of them, though, as much as I can feel sorry for anyone who gets paid millions of dollars to do anything short of sell their body to lusty ThunderCats. So, what does this have to do with anythingRead More Jamaican Patois and the Power of Language in Reggae Music Essay4989 Words   |  20 PagesJamaican Patois and the Power of Language in Reggae Music Introduction Creole languages are found all over the world on every continent. When two or more languages come into contact to form a new language a Creole language is born. Some type of human upheaval that forces people to find a way to communicate, without using their own languages, stimulates the creation of a Creole language. In the case of Creole languages in the Caribbean, the upheaval is the past history of slavery. Most CreoleRead MoreConstructing My Cultural Identity6012 Words   |  25 Pagesnoir, ainsi que sur la pensà ©e anticoloniale. Introduction The purpose of this article is to examine the forces that have shaped my identity as a child of the African diaspora, first growing up in the Caribbean and then the encounter between my Jamaican culture and the Canadian cultural context. I attempt to address the following questions: How has my identity been formed? What parts of my life have been honored, and what parts are excluded and why? How does society view me versus my own definition

Passion Essay Example For Students

Passion Essay I give in. My passion for writing is growing larger and larger each day, it has become the only thing I think about on a daily basis. Its turning into a nuisance! I curse it to the back of my head every time it comes to fore thought. It twists my guts into an almost wrenching pain when I dont have the chance to write something down on a piece of paper and make it my own. It forces the air from my chest as if I were a cartoon character with an anvil flattened. Where did I get this from, you ask? Let me tell you a story that explains my passion. Sit back, and enjoy the ride. Soar through the sky with dragons, their hot breath on your neck as you hit the ground tumbling. The blistering win cracking your skin from the powerful wings that beat wildly to land with such easy and natural grace. Before your able to catch your breath, after witnessing the beautiful landing, you hear the cries of shock and pain as an arrogant man has mortally wounded one of your lizard brethren. Azhrei, dragon prince, is what they called him because of the enhanced cunningness and intellect he used to destroy the life of this beloved beast. Dragon Prince by Melanie Rawn comes in nine books, and explains the attachments of fantasy and fiction to romance and war. The beginning of my intrigue to this novel was the end, I had rather impulsively, skipped to the end. As I returned to the beginning, I was enthralled to see the turn of events further down the story line and eager to read through completely. While reading, I was becoming intimately attached to the characters; I was one of them. I felt the mind-blowing pain of the crop whip across Rohans shoulders as he fled down a racetrack more for his life then the prize. The seething jealousy Sioned felt in her heart over Rohans flirtatious ways with the High Princes daughter to be able to barter for the things his people demanded of him from his overlords lands. Sioned and Rohan, the secretly betrothed main characters, remain engraved into my heart till the end of time. The connections I felt to these characters inevitably caused me to give advice and make them apart of my life. What the Goddess proclaims is not written in stone, but when it is the stone can be shattered, Lady Andrade, Rohans aunt and Sioneds tutor, told Sioned about her deepening and frightening love for Rohan. But what has furrowed deeper into my heart everyday is writing. I have kept this quote close to my heart knowing that some day it would become useful in my life and become an ever-lasting guiding line. My passion for writing is simple; it has become etched into my heart the day I was introduced to the idea of research projects. Creative writing is what makes my heart pound and knees quiver, if writing is what you think about when you wake up, and before you go to bed, you were meant to be a writer, preached Mary Clarence (Sister Act II). When I first became conscience of this joy, I was shocked into the realization that I could be a good writer if I tried. And I did, from the first day of my English class in ninth grade; I have tried and have been successful. Even though that was only a short time ago, which seems like a late start, it was just the right time for me to begin to explore this unknown desire. I had matured past my adolescent years, and started towards my journey into becoming an adult. I could write about my fears and joys, and transfer those feelings to my readers. What Melanie had done with her words, is what I cannot wait to do with mine, captivate and beguile my readers into the magic of witches, dragons, and mythical creatures.

Tanning Beds/Salons Essays - Sun Tanning, Tanning Bed, Tanning Lamp

Tanning Beds/Salons What exactly is tanning? Tanning is your body's natural response that occurs when your skin is exposed to ultraviolet radiation (UV) such as the sun. Exposure to UV radiation from sunlamps and beds can add to the total amount of UV radiation you can receive in your lifetime. UVA and UVB rays put out radiation which can cause skin cancer. Tanning beds and booths basically imitate the sun. The sun emits three kinds of UV rays (the ones that make you tan). UV-C has the shortest wavelength of the three, and is also the most harmful. The sun emits UV-C light, but then it's absorbed by the ozone layer and pollution. Tanning lamps filter out this type of UV light. UV-B, the middle wavelength, starts the tanning process, but overexposure can cause sunburn. UV-A has the longest wavelength, and it completes the tanning process. Tanning lamps use the best ratio of UV-B and UV-A light to provide optimal tanning results, with a lowered risk of overexposure. If it takes you a while to get a tan outside, it may be easier for you to get the color you want (brown instead of red) by tanning indoors. You would need to start with a short exposure time, and increase it very gradually. However, if you NEVER tan from the sun, you will not tan from tanning lamps, since they emit the very same tanning rays as the sun does. In order to build a tan, it is important to tan regularly. Don't let too much time go by between visits, or your tan will begin to fade. You can tan up to once every 24 hours, but it is generally recommended that you wait at least 48 hours in between each session to allow your tan to fully develop in between visits. You can build up your tan by going to an indoor tanning facility three to four times a week. Once you have a tan, you can maintain it by tanning two or three times a week. Usually, you will begin to notice results after a few tanning sessions, but it may take a few weeks of regular tanning (at least three times a week) to get to the color you are looking for. If you are developing a base tan before going on a trip, you would want to start tanning about three or four weeks before you go.

my book report essays

my book report essays Realism in Uncle Vanya and A Doll's House A play serves as the author's tool for critiquing society. One rarely encounters the ability to transcend accepted social beliefs. These plays reflect controversial issues that the audience can relate to because they interact in the same situations every day. As late nineteenth century playwrights point out the flaws of mankind they also provide an answer to the controversy. Unknowingly the hero or heroine solves the problem at the end of the play and indirectly sends a message to the audience on how to solve their own problem. Henrik Ibsen and Anton Chekov both provide unique analysis on issues their culture never thought as wrong. In the play A Doll's House Ibsen tackles women's rights as a matter of importance being neglected. In his play he acknowledges the fact that in nineteenth century European life the role of the women was to stay home, raise the children, and attend to her husband. Chekov illustrates the role of a dysfunctional family and how its members are effected. Both of the aforementioned problems are solved through the playwrights' recommendations and the actions of the characters. In the plays A Doll's House and Uncle Vanya the authors use realism to present a problem and solution to controversial societal issues. While both plays mainly concentrate on the negative aspects of culture, there are positive facets explored by the playwrights. In A Doll's House Henrik Ibsen focuses on the lack of power and authority given to women, but through Nora we also see the strength and willpower masked by her husband Torvald. To save her husband's life Nora secretly forges her father's signature and receives a loan to finance a trip to the sea. Nora's naivety of the law puts her in a situation that questions her morality and dedication. Nora is not aware that under the law she is a criminal. She believes that her forgery is justified through her motive. She is not a criminal like Kro...

The Many Meanings of Bitte in German

The Many Meanings of Bitte in German Bitte is used a lot in German. The many meanings of bitte include: PleaseYoure welcomeHere you go (when handing something over)May I help you?Pardon? The challenge is determining what the speaker or writer means when using the word:  It all depends on the context, tone, and other words expressed along with bitte.   Saying Pardon Me? You can use  bitte  when you are trying to politely express that you did not understand or hear something the speaker has just said, as in Pardon me? The following brief dialog shows how to express that sentiment in a courteous manner. Ich bin heute einkaufen gegangen. I went shopping today.Wie Bitte?   Pardon me?Ich habe gesagt, dass ich heute einkaufen gegangen bin.   I said, I went shopping today. Expressing Here You Go and Please A  host  might  use bitte when handing something, such as a slice of pie, to a guest, as in:  Here you go. Or,  a customer and a waiter might both use  bitte  in the following exchange: Customer: Ein Stà ¼ck Apfelkuchen bitte. A piece of apple cake please.Waiter, serving the cake:  Bitte sehr.   Here you go.Customer: Danke.   Thank you. Note how in this exchange, the customer uses  bitte  to mean please, while the waiter uses the same German word to mean here you go. Saying Please and Yes Please Bitte  can also mean please in other contexts. For example, you can use this handy word to ask for help, as in this example: Kannst du mir bitte helfen?   Can you help me please? You can also use  bitte  to  mean please as a polite imperative, as in this brief exchange. Darf ich Ihnen den Mantel abnehmen?   May I take your coat?Bitte!   Yes, please! Asking May I Help You? You will often hear a waiter say  bitte, bitte sehr, or bitteschà ¶n?  (please and here you go) in a restaurant when delivering a dish. For instance, waiters will often use the word when they approach your table, as in: Bitte sehr! Here you go!Hier, bitteschà ¶n. Here you go. Note that  bitte  by itself still means youre welcome, but in this context, the word is used as a shortened version or  bitteschà ¶n or bitte  sehr.  This makes sense, because if the  waiter is carrying a hot plate and wants to set it down- but you are busy talking or drinking your coffee- he certainly would want to use as few words as possible to get your attention so youll free up some space and he can relieve himself of the scalding plate. Saying  Youre Welcome If someone thanks you for a present, she might say: Vielen Dank fà ¼r Ihren Geschenk!   Thank you very much for your present! You have several ways to say youre welcome, in addition to using the word bitte. You can express it formally, as in: Bitteschà ¶nBitte sehrGern geschehen   It was my pleasure.Mit Vergnà ¼gen   With pleasure. Or you can express yourself informally by saying: BitteGern geschehen   It was my pleasureGern  (shortened form of Gern geschehen) You are welcome.Nichts zu danken.  Ã‚  Dont mention it.

Business Advantage from E-Commerce in Fashion Industry Essay - 1

Business Advantage from E-Commerce in Fashion Industry - Essay Example Internet marketing or e tailing offers other distinct advantages of (Marciniak & Bruce, 2009, p.259). Fernie & Sparks (2009) proposed a model that stated the use of technology for ensuring procurement practices at the organization. The model largely states the use of technology intensive software packages as well as use of online channel to facilitate competitive advantage(Fernie & Sparks, 2009, p.29). Outbound logistics for e-tailing industry implies the cost for delivery of goods to the customers. The revenue margin gained from cost savings in inbound logistics helps in taking care of the cost of outbound logistics. Fashion retailers can be classified into four main categories namely, brick and mortar based retailers, virtual e-retailers, catalogue based retailers and multi-channel retailers. Internet has largely changed the supply chain dynamics of the fashion retailers with firms trying to use the internet for developing better relationships with the customers (Marciniak & Bruce, 2009, p.260). Internet based online marketing firstly helps in providing efficient and fast service to the customers as e-tailing helps in integrating the sales activities with after sales support to generate greater value for the customers. Secondly, cost based advantages include reduced cost of inbound logistics as firms eliminate many intermediaries who serve to reduce the margins while not adding any significant value to the product offering. Thirdly firms also get access to a large database of customers which can be subjected to data mining techniques to generate competitive advantage (Windischhofer, 2003, p.24) . Marketing and supply chain management practices are largely correlated with each other. Marketing strategies are essentially forming the basis for supply chain activities of an organization. Supply chain strategies are largely the outcomes of the relationship between the suppliers.

Project Management Module Coursework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Project Management Module Coursework - Essay Example The cost information that would be necessary would be in terms of the length of the project, the total costs of the project, the efforts of the staff that is Person: Days Ratio. The cost information could be obtained from the use of the standards and measurements sections. We can ensure that costs are in line with the estimates by making frequent comparisons with the actual costs with the estimates. The aspects of standard costing could also be established with respects to costs, recoveries and efficiency studies. Question 1C: The choice for selection of project manager is being considered, In this connection, it is necessary to appoint a person with IT background, since it is nowadays, a crucial aspect of project management, and IT is very much necessary for application in industry situations. Moreover, it is also seen that effective business solutions, especially in the areas of Project Management, is inextricably linked with IT, Question 1D: The Baseline metrics could be seen in terms of Development productivity, unit costs and lapsed time/unit. .In terms of development productivity, it measures one unit of effort could result in how many products. The unit costs could measure the amount of cost needed to produce one unit of product. The lapsed time per unit would be in terms of the time taken to produce one unit. Question 2: A: The activity on arrow is a simple and easily understandable diagram which is also amenable to corrections. Even a non-technical person could follow these diagrams and understand the path of the network. It is also seen that the major achievements are easily marked and even in cases where there are multiple relationships between processes, the AoA diagrammatic representation is easier to understand. Question 2 B: A dummy activity is one which is representative of a dependency but which has no time allotment, that means it could be carried simultaneously with another activity and therefore has 0 duration. The

Perfect competition Essay Example for Free

Perfect competition Essay Monopoly and monopolistic competitions, basic concepts monopoly means a market situation in which there is only a single seller and large no. of buyers. whereas monopolistic competition is a market situation in which there is large no. of sellers and large no. of buyers. in monopolistic competition, close substitutes are there in the sense that products are different in terms of size, colour,packaging,brand,price etc. as in case of soap,toothpaste etc. but in monopoly, there is no close substitute of the good,if any, it will be a remote substitute like in India, Indian railways has its monopoly but its remote substitutes are present like bus and air service. in monopolistic competition, there is aggressive advertising but in monopoly, there is no advertising at all or a very little. in monopolistic competition,demand curve faced by the firm is more elastic because of availability of close substitutes. it means if a firm raises its price, it will loose its large market share as customers in large will shift to close substitutes present in the market. but in monopoly, the demand curve faced by the firm is less elastic because of no close substitutes. if means if the firm raises its price, demand will not fall in a large quantity as it is only one in the market. u have to understand that the four different kinds, perfect, monopolistic, oligopoly, monopoly are on a spectrum with perfect and monopoly on the extremes, monopolistic is very similar to perfect, and monopoly is different that its a hard market to enter, because theres very few firms and require a big budget to get started. look up the graphs for these competitions and you should have a better understanding MONOPOLY IN TELECOMMUNICATION . Competition in Telecommunications Services Experience has demonstrated that free and open competition benefits individual consumers and societies as a whole by ensuring lower prices, new and better products and services, and expanded consumer choice. The benefits of competition are readily seen in todays telecommunications sector. Dynamic technological change is resulting in new services and systems that provide innovative solutions to communications needs across the globe. As a result, telecommunications is becoming increasingly important to the efficiency and effectiveness of private and public sector institutions. In this environment of rapid change, a competitive marketplace will tap the potential of the telecommunications sector to serve the economic and social well-being of all citizens. BENEFITS OF COMPETITION Free and open competition benefits individual consumers and the global community by ensuring lower prices, new and better products and services, and greater consumer choice than occurs under monopoly conditions. In an open market, producers compete to win customers by lowering prices, developing new services that best meet the needs of customers. A competitive market promotes innovation by rewarding producers that invent, develop, and introduce new and innovative products and production processes. By doing so, the wealth of the society as a whole is increased. In a competitive environment, businesses that fail to understand and react to consumer needs face the loss of customers and declining profits. A policy framework to establish, foster, and regulate competition is critical to the delivery of benefits expected and demanded by consumers. In other words, competition rewards entrepreneurship, responsiveness, and enthusiasm; it punishes sluggishness and indifference. Because of the increasing importance of the telecommunications sector to the overall economy, countries can ill afford the sluggishness and indifference that so often characterize the provision of products and services under monopoly conditions. As developments in technology continue to produce efficient and exciting communications services, societies may be significantly disadvantaged if they forego the rewards of entrepreneurship and responsiveness associated with open, competitive telecommunications markets. POLICY GOALS TO ACHIEVE COMPETITIVE MARKETS In order to achieve the benefits of competition described above, governments and regulators must establish an appropriate policy framework to govern the telecommunications sector. First, governments should remove legal barriers that protect existing monopoly providers from competition by new entrants. Second, policymakers should take affirmative steps to promote competition in sectors of the market that were previously closed to competition. Examples of these steps include adopting policies that encourage multiple methods and modes of market entry. Third, policymakers should consider introducing competitive safeguards to protect against the exercise of market power by incumbent carriers during the transition to competition. The most fundamental of these competitive safeguards involves regulation of the terms and conditions governing interconnection with the existing monopoly providers network. In the United States, although important steps were made to promote competition in the telecommunications sector prior to passage of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, the law firmly established the intent to provide for a pro-competitive, deregulatory national policy framework designed to accelerate private sector deployment of advanced telecommunications and information technologies and services to all Americans by opening all telecommunications markets to competition. EFFECTS OF COMPETITION IN THE TELECOMMUNICATION SECTOR. The benefits of introducing competition in telecommunications markets are apparent in all segments of the telecommunications market. For instance, competition in the United States and many other countries in long distance and international telecommunications services has led to a dramatic decline in consumer rates for these services, as well as a dramatic increase in demand and a substantial increase in investment. International telecommunications services can be particularly important to the development of a stable and robust economy linked to the global marketplace. The 1997 WTO Agreement on Basic Telecommunications Services ushered in a new era for telecommunications competition in many countries of the world. As part of that agreement, 72 countries have made commitments to open their telecommunications markets to foreign suppliers of basic telecommunications services. As these countries implement their commitments, dramatic change has occurred in their telecommunications markets. In many countries, there are several new providers of international and domestic telecommunications services, and prices are dramatically lower. As a result, increased competition has led to lower international settlement rates in many countries which, in turn, has led to lower calling prices for consumers. Lower calling prices means that people can afford to make more calls, more often, creating closer ties between family and friends in different countries and strengthening business relationships. Thus, introducing competition in international telecommunications markets produces benefits throughout a countrys economy. In addition, as part of the WTO Agreement, 49 countries made commitments to open their satellite service markets. These commitments have helped increase the ability of global and regional satellite providers to obtain the requisite authorizations for their systems. Similarly, in many countries private investment and competition in the provision of terrestrial wireless telecommunications infrastructure has led to declining prices for, and widespread use of, wireless telephone service. In areas where teledensity can increase, moreover, price reductions may expand the number of households that can afford service. This increased demand may make build-out decisions more attractive. For example, in Chile, lower prices increased traffic by 260% from 1994 to 1997. In 1987, there were 6. 7 phones per 100 households in Chile; this number rose to 11 in 1992 and to 15. 2 in 1996. As lower prices stimulate greater demand, an overall increase in revenues results despite additional providers in the market. In the U. S. long distance market, lower prices, in combination with an expanding market for services, have offset revenue loss from price reductions and the decrease in market share. For example, while ATTs long distance market share fell from 90% in 1984 to 45% in 1997, its revenues increased from $35 billion to $40 billion during this same period. Thus, although ATT lost market share, its revenues increased in a competitive marketplace. The benefits from introducing competition in international and domestic telecommunications markets can be fully realized, however, only when market participants have the incentive to compete vigorously to attract the greatest amount of business. It has been the U. S.experience that these incentives exist only where there is open entry into the telecommunications services market. Where entry is limited, or where only one or two new entrants are allowed to compete against the incumbent carrier, the benefits of competition are limited as well. For instance, when cellular telephone service was first introduced into the United States in the 1980s there were only two licensees in each market. As a result, prices remained relatively high and demand was more limited. After additional licenses were authorized in each market, priced dropped, new services were introduced and demand exploded. BUILDING A TELECOMMUNICATIONS SECTOR AS A PART OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Developing countries face many infrastructure challenges. While roads, water, and electricity are obvious fundamental requirements, development of a strong communications and information system is vital for the country to survive and prosper. As global developments increasingly push competition and its benefits, developing countries can realize these benefits in part through encouraging the establishment of an indigenous telecommunications sector. And one highly effective way to achieve this is to promote and nurture the growth of small and entrepreneurial entities within that sector. The United States experience provides some insight. Historically, most of the cutting- edge commercial and technology breakthroughs in the United States have been developed by individual entrepreneurs or small businesses, from Alexander Graham Bell to Bill Gates. Additionally, Americas 22 million small businesses produce more than half of the nations gross domestic product, and businesses employing fewer than twenty people have created all 99. 99 percent of the nations new jobs in recent years. Such a phenomenal success story is due not only to the free enterprise system and profit motive, but also to a carefully developed government policy of supporting and nurturing small businesses. The U. S. has implemented numerous federal programs to assist small businesses in harnessing the engines of economic growth and innovation loan guarantee programs, technical assistance programs, investment programs, anti- discrimination regulatory programs, outreach efforts, information and training programs. Congress. established the Telecommunications Development Fund, some $25 million, to invest in promising new telecommunications businesses. Obviously the environment and situation of most developing countries is quite different from that in the United States, and overcoming an embedded monopoly telecom provider is something weve never had to do. Still, some basic steps privatizing, establishing an independent regulator, developing helpful tax and labor laws, a willingness to waive regulatory and filing requirements to the extent possible can produce great benefits. A developing country could make it a condition for foreign carriers and operators serving seeking to provide service to (or within) its territory to undertake efforts to promote or support indigenous and start-up businesses. Supporting the growth of small and entrepreneurial telecom businesses by various means can lead to permanent economic gains for developing nations economies, and to full participation in the global telecom marketplace. METHODS OF INTRODUCING COMPETITION IN THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS SECTOR Restricting methods and modes of entry can cause investment distortions and result in higher prices to consumers. It is by allowing the marketplace to select preferred approaches that policymakers encourage efficient entry. Three methods are typically used to introduce competition into the telecommunications sector: * Facilities-based competition * Unbundling of network elements * Resale In addition, a technologically neutral policy fosters innovative systems and alternative facilities designed to meet the needs of the marketplace. For example, the construction of a wireless network may be more appropriate in some markets than the development of a competing wireline carrier. Facilities-Based Competition. When a new entrant constructs a network using its own facilities to reach its customers (i. e. , without using the incumbent carriers network), that type of entry is commonly referred to as full facilities-based competition. By developing a new network, a facilities-based competitor is not constrained by existing, possibly obsolete embedded plant and instead can install the newest, most efficient technology. As a result, the competitor will be able to supply new or additional services such as faster transmission and switching speeds or higher bandwidth capacity, and may be able to do so at lower costs than the incumbent. Facilities-based competitors not only directly benefit their customers but also create competitive pressure for the incumbent to upgrade its network. In addition, facilities-based entry allows the marketplace to drive competition with less regulatory presence. As discussed more fully below, full facilities-based entrants still require interconnection for the mutual exchange of traffic with other providers. New entrants customers need to be able to communicate with subscribers on other networks, especially the incumbents network where the majority of users obtain their service. Without the ability to interconnect on fair terms, a new facilities-based competitor cannot survive. Use of Unbundled Network Elements While full facilities-based competition has many advantages, it may not always be practical for a new entrant to construct an entire network. For example, it may be economically feasible to construct switching and long distance facilities but infeasible to construct local loops or last mile facilities that connect to customer locations. This might be due to economies of scale or the practical difficulties associated with acquiring needed rights-of-way. Thus, a second entry route is one in which the new entrant constructs portions of a network and purchases access to the relevant essential facilities of the incumbent providers network, such as the local loop. This method of entry is referred to as using unbundled network elements, and typically must be required by law or regulation. Entry through the use of unbundled network elements has a number of important advantages. First, it reduces entry barriers by allowing new entrants to begin offering service without having to construct an entire network. Second, on a longer term basis, it prevents the incumbent carrier from exploiting any residual monopoly power that may arise through remaining economies of scale or from the practical difficulties of obtaining needed rights-of-way, antenna sites for wireless systems, etc. Third, it allows new entrants additional avenues of innovation. For example, new entrants can purchase unbundled loops from the established carrier and use them with entirely different types of technologies (e. g. , packet switches based upon Internet Protocol (IP)) than those employed by the incumbent carrier. In this arrangement, consumers benefit from these new and better services and additional choices that competition provides. Regulatory intervention is necessary in order to require the incumbent carrier to unbundle its network and to price the resulting elements at economically efficient prices. More specifically, incumbents should be required to provide any requesting telecommunications carrier non-discriminatory access to elements of the incumbents network on an unbundled basis on rates, terms and conditions that are just, reasonable, and non-discriminatory. Incumbents should be required to provide any reasonable method of interconnection, including physical collocation or virtual collocation, or interconnection at a point between the incumbents and new entrants network. In the United States, the Telecommunications Act of 1996 identified a minimum list of network elements that incumbent local exchange carriers must unbundle. These network elements include: local loops, network interface devices, local and tandem switching capabilities, interoffice transmission facilities, signaling and call-related databases, operations support systems, and operator services and directory assistance facilities. In addition, new entrants should have access to pole lines, ducts, conduits, and rights-of-way owned or controlled by the incumbent. Resale In the telecommunications context, resale occurs when competitors obtain a service at a discounted or wholesale rate from the underlying, established carrier and then sell the service to their own customers. Resale can serve a multi-faceted role in promoting and sustaining competition in telecommunications services. Resale may be an effective entry vehicle for new entrants that may initially lack the necessary capital to build their own networks. Resale may also allow small competitors, which will not become facilities-based providers, to offer service. In addition, resellers may stimulate usage of the incumbents network, and thus may benefit the incumbent facilities-based provider and further growth of the entire sector. Moreover, this competition may help to keep prices lower for consumers, increase consumer choice, and ultimately stimulate economic growth. Experience in the U. S. long distance market suggests that resale can yield significant public benefits. Resale competition takes the form of arbitrage, where a reseller purchases a large number of minutes at a quantity discount and resells them to small customers at prices lower than the retail prices otherwise available to those customers. By providing affordable prices for the customer, resellers stimulate demand and thus compel facilities-based carriers to bring their prices closer to actual costs. At the same time, the increased competition from resellers expands the availability of innovative services, such as new billing terms and alternative rate structures. In particular, resellers can create consumer value by creating different billing plans or targeting their marketing to under-served groups within the community. Many countries have committed to a policy of resale as part of the WTO Basic Telecommunications Agreement to provide market access for basic telecommunications services. For smaller countries, resale provides some of the benefits of competition even if the total amount of telecommunications traffic generated is insufficient to attract multiple facilities-based carriers. Resellers may resell an entire service without modification, which is referred to as Total Service Resale. Resellers may also choose to obtain some services from the underlying carrier and combine them with services that they provide themselves. For example, a carrier may offer long distance services using its own switching facilities but lease long haul facilities from the incumbent provider. Resale also allows providers to offer bundles of different services without actually constructing the necessary facilities. By doing so, they can achieve certain economies in terms of marketing while providing a package of services for the convenience of their customers. For example, a local exchange carrier can offer long distance services without constructing long haul facilities. Similarly, a carrier offering both local and long- distance services could add mobile services to its package without constructing its own wireless network. In many industries resale occurs as a natural part of the development of markets. However, in telecommunications, a dominant carrier may be required by law or regulation to make its services available for resale. In particular, a regulatory requirement may be necessary to force the underlying carrier to offer services at a wholesale rate. In a competitive market, however, some providers may find a source of revenue in the provision of services on a wholesale basis. This often occurs when the facilities-based carrier has excess capacity on its network. In the U. S. long distance market, some carriers have constructed nationwide fiber-optic networks with the intent of offering transmission services on a wholesale basis to other carriers. Real market experience has shown that resale can spur competition. The growth of competition in the U. S. long distance market resulted from a combination of the facilities-based and resale competition models. From the early stages of long distance competition, facilities-based providers and resellers have actively competed against one another. This approach resulted in more affordable rates, new service offerings, and numerous new entrants. Despite the obvious benefits of resale, it has limitations. First of all, the reseller is limited to a greater or lesser extent by the technical features and functions of the underlying carriers network. This limits the ability of the reseller to innovate. Second, resale alone does not put competitive pressure on wholesale rates and services because the underlying carrier may not be subject to competitive pressures to innovate at the wholesale level. This means that the regulator must retain some degree of control over the pricing, terms and conditions of the wholesale offering. INTERCONNECTION, THE KEY TO COMPETITIVE SUCCESS The key to competition within telecommunications services is the ability of networks to interconnect. Interconnection allows communications to occur across networks, linking competitors so customers of different networks can communicate with one another. For competition to be successful at maximizing consumer benefits and innovation in the telecommunications market, carriers that compete for customers must also provide competitors with access to those customers. Shared access to customers occurs through interconnection, and access to all customers is necessary both for successful entry and for continued competition. If the incumbent, with the vast majority of customers, does not interconnect with new entrants, it is unlikely that the new entrants will remain economically viable. A regulatory framework is needed to aid in the transition from a monopoly environment to a competitive environment because a monopoly or dominant provider has a strategic interest to keep out or minimize competitors in its market. As a result, the monopoly or dominant provider has a strong incentive to limit interconnection. Therefore, a regulator that is independent of any operator and of inappropriate political influence should adopt rules that give new entrants bargaining strength equal to the incumbents. The price of interconnection (or transport and termination), for example, could serve as a significant barrier to entry for new networks. An incumbent monopolist has an incentive to demand a high price to terminate calls originating on a new entrants network and pay nothing for calls originating on its own network. In the United States, transport and termination charges are reciprocal and based on the long run incremental cost of providing the transport and termination on the incumbents network. Thus, the primary purpose of mandated interconnection is to foster a competitive environment that is fair to all competitors. Because the incumbent service provider has the vast majority of customers, a new entrant must be able to interconnect in order to provide full access to its customers. Without the ability to interconnect, new entrants would be severely restricted in their ability to compete with the incumbent. REGULATORY TOOLS FOR PROTECTING AGAINST THE EXERCISE OF MARKET POWER DURING THE TRANSITION TO COMPETITION Special problems may arise when a telecommunications carrier with monopoly power in the provision of a particular service or facility wants to offer a competitive service that is dependent upon the use of the monopoly service or facility. This may occur, for example, where competition has been introduced in the long distance and international markets but the local market remains a monopoly. The two problems are cost- shifting/cross-subsidization and discrimination. The first problem arises if the monopoly service is regulated on a rate-of-return (profit) basis. If so, there is an incentive for the carrier with monopoly power to shift costs from the competitive service to the monopoly service. Shifting costs in this manner artificially raises the price of the monopoly service and allows the carrier to charge below-cost rates for the competitive service. This results in the captive customers paying above- cost rates for the monopoly services and hampers the development of a viable market for the competitive services. An example of this situation could occur when a carrier with monopoly power in the provision of local facilities or services wants to enter the long distance market or information services market. The second problem occurs when control over an essential service or facility necessary for a competitive service enables the monopoly carrier to discriminate in favor of its own competitive offering. For example, a carrier with monopoly power in the provision of local facilities or services has the incentive to discriminate in favor of its own long distance or information service. This discrimination may manifest itself in the form of better quality interconnection or faster installation times for needed facilities or services. What follows is an overview of some of the tools that are available to policymakers and regulators to discourage or prevent cost-shifting/cross-subsidization and discrimination. These tools or techniques can be used alone or in combination. The more stringent techniques may be appropriate when and where the threat is greatest. Less stringent techniques may be appropriate as competition takes hold in the previously monopolized market. Outright Prohibition on Providing the Competitive Product or Service One technique for preventing a carrier with monopoly power from cross-subsidizing and discriminating in the provision of a competitive service is to prohibit the carrier from entering the competitive market. Outright prohibitions have been and are being used in the United States. For example, the original agreement (Consent Decree) that led to the divestiture of the Bell Operating Companies from ATT prohibited the former from certain activities, including the provision of certain long distance services and information services. Under the Telecommunications Act of 1996, the Bell Operating Companies are prohibited from offering long distance services and alarm services until certain conditions are met. While outright prohibition prevents cross-subsidization and discrimination, it may also deny the public the benefits of possible economies of scale or scope that may be derived if the carrier is allowed to provide the competitive service. Outright prohibition may also deny the public the benefits of innovation that might come from the participation of the monopoly carrier in the competitive market. Price Caps for Regulated Monopoly Services The incentive to shift costs from a competitive service to a monopoly service exists under profit regulation. Under price cap regulation, the prices of the monopoly services are capped (indexed to inflation and expected productivity increases). Price cap regulation has a number of advantages, including incentives for the carrier to be more efficient. It also discourages the monopoly provider from shifting costs from the competitive activity to the monopoly activity, because if the price of the monopoly service is capped, there is no incentive to shift costs from the competitive service to the monopoly service. Separate Subsidiary Requirement Under this requirement, the carrier with monopoly power is allowed to provide the competitive service, but only through a separate subsidiary or affiliate. The separate subsidiary requirement is combined with an obligation that the monopoly carrier treat the affiliated company no better than it treats unaffiliated providers of the competitive service. In other words, the monopoly carrier must deal with the affiliate on an arms- length basis. The regulator has the ability to control the degree of separateness. Examples of the requirements for separateness can include requirements that the monopoly provider and its affiliate: * Maintain separate books of account. * Utilize separate officers and personnel * Employ separate marketing activities * Not share common equipment or facilities * Adhere to certain restrictions on information flows that would unfairly benefit the competitive affiliate In addition, a typical requirement is that if the affiliate must obtain any transmission services from the monopoly provider, it must do so on a tariffed basis. Tariffing Requirements Tariffing is a fundamental technique traditionally used to protect users (both consumers and other carriers) against discrimination. Tariffing requires the regulated monopolist to file tariffs explaining its service rates, terms and conditions with the regulatory agency and to adhere to those rates, terms and conditions once the tariff is filed. Through the tariff and enforcement processes, which include opportunities for public comment, the regulator has some ability to prevent cross-subsidization and discrimination. Accounting Separation A requirement to maintain separate books of account can be adopted even without the imposition of a separate subsidiary requirement. Accounting separation typically requires the regulated monopoly provider to set up and maintain separate books of account for the competitive activity and to adhere to prescribed methods of separating costs. This provides a degree of protection against cross-subsidization. Imputation Requirements An imputation requirement obligates the regulated monopolist to charge the same amount for a service or facility provided to a competitive affiliate or operation that it charges to an unaffiliated provider, and to include that amount in the price it charges for the competitive service. Service Quality Reporting Requirements A service quality reporting requirement obligates the regulated monopolist to collect date and report on the quality of the services provided to both affiliated and unaffiliated competitors. This helps regulators detect and correct discrimination in the provision of essential services or facilities to competitors. Resale Requirements As discussed earlier, a resale requirement has a number of advantages in promoting competition. Resale can also help prevent cross-subsidization. For example, where a carrier has market power in the provision of switched services but there is competition in the provision of private lines, the carrier may try to increase the price of the switched service in order to cross-subsidize and thus under-price its private line offering. If the carrier is required to allow the resale of the private line offerings, however, entrepreneurs could combine the private lines with their own switching, and undercut the prices of the monopolists switched service offering. This has the effect of discouraging the carrier with market power from engaging in cross-subsidization. Unbundling Requirements An unbundling requirement forces the regulated monopolist to make network elements available to competitors on an unbundled basis under rates, terms and conditions that are just, reasonable, and non-discriminatory.

Censorship Essay -- essays research papers

Recently in the news, the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR) fined Johnny Sauter, one of their drivers, $10,000 as well as charging him 25 points for â€Å"inappropriate† comments made after a BUSCH race in Las Vegas. The words said were at the conclusion of a race in which the driver had been putting his life on the line at over 200 mph. Fueled with adrenaline, the words spoken were not words ordinarily used by Sauter, however, NASCAR legislated just the same (McCormick). This case is the most recent of many that censorship has become a major battleground. Since first the shootings of April 1999 in Columbine Colorado, and most recently, the 2004 Super Bowl Halftime show in which singer Justin Timberlake exposed the breast of fellow singer Janet Jackson, the government has made it its priority to influence the entertainment industry to put into place new rules, such as the one in NASCAR, to regulate â€Å"inappropriate† material, therefore increasi ng censorship. On top of this, the industry itself has begun to attempt a type of self-censorship. Although censorship has been around for ages, what is it and why does it exist? Censorship in today’s era is a higher power attempting to prevent disturbing or painful sights, sounds, or any other information form from reaching the public in order to keep a feeling of well moral being. However, the main question in today’s times is whether or not censorship is necessary in today’s world, and if the government should be able to force censorship on the entertainment industry.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Though the case involving the NASCAR driver is the most recent ridiculous form of censorship, it has taken place throughout the history of entertainment itself. However, in the past ten years, after censorship laws had begun to loosen, the media and the government has once again begun to pull tighter on the censorship blindfold, covering society’s eyes. After the shootings in Colorado, many wrongfully took up arms against the entertainment industry, convincing society that the blame for the teen’s actions should fall on the violence they viewed in movies and on TV. Therefore, following the shootings, the House of Representatives held a hearing to help determine any new bills that should be put into place to restrict the entertainment industry. As written by Virginia Postrel in an article for Reason magazine... ...utting blame else ware, parents, as well as other authority figures, are not solving the problem, rather, they are throwing dry wood on a fire which is already beginning to burn out of control. Censorship is not, nor has it ever been an answer. It is simply another way to cover up this modern reality, and though at times it may be harsh, it is what is real that makes one into who he or she shall become. By allowing censorship, one is hurting both those who create media art and the audience for whom the art is meant. Therefore, as quoted from Postrel’s article â€Å"Creative Matrix,† â€Å"Curbing new ideas hurts not only individual creators but the audience for which they create and the posterity that inherits their legacy.† Work Cited: Lowenthal, David. â€Å"Why the Mass Media Must Be Censored.† Furist October 1998. Eisner, Michael E. â€Å"A Little Restraint, Please.† The Wall Street Journal 24 April 1998. Postrel, Virginia. â€Å"Creative Matrix.† Reason August/September 1999. McCormick, Steve. â€Å"Nascar Censorship Reaching New Heights.† 28 Nov 2004 Associated Press. â€Å"Poll: Janet's Revelation No Crime.† 21 Feb 2004. 28 Nov 2004   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Censorship Essay -- essays research papers Recently in the news, the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR) fined Johnny Sauter, one of their drivers, $10,000 as well as charging him 25 points for â€Å"inappropriate† comments made after a BUSCH race in Las Vegas. The words said were at the conclusion of a race in which the driver had been putting his life on the line at over 200 mph. Fueled with adrenaline, the words spoken were not words ordinarily used by Sauter, however, NASCAR legislated just the same (McCormick). This case is the most recent of many that censorship has become a major battleground. Since first the shootings of April 1999 in Columbine Colorado, and most recently, the 2004 Super Bowl Halftime show in which singer Justin Timberlake exposed the breast of fellow singer Janet Jackson, the government has made it its priority to influence the entertainment industry to put into place new rules, such as the one in NASCAR, to regulate â€Å"inappropriate† material, therefore increasi ng censorship. On top of this, the industry itself has begun to attempt a type of self-censorship. Although censorship has been around for ages, what is it and why does it exist? Censorship in today’s era is a higher power attempting to prevent disturbing or painful sights, sounds, or any other information form from reaching the public in order to keep a feeling of well moral being. However, the main question in today’s times is whether or not censorship is necessary in today’s world, and if the government should be able to force censorship on the entertainment industry.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Though the case involving the NASCAR driver is the most recent ridiculous form of censorship, it has taken place throughout the history of entertainment itself. However, in the past ten years, after censorship laws had begun to loosen, the media and the government has once again begun to pull tighter on the censorship blindfold, covering society’s eyes. After the shootings in Colorado, many wrongfully took up arms against the entertainment industry, convincing society that the blame for the teen’s actions should fall on the violence they viewed in movies and on TV. Therefore, following the shootings, the House of Representatives held a hearing to help determine any new bills that should be put into place to restrict the entertainment industry. As written by Virginia Postrel in an article for Reason magazine... ...utting blame else ware, parents, as well as other authority figures, are not solving the problem, rather, they are throwing dry wood on a fire which is already beginning to burn out of control. Censorship is not, nor has it ever been an answer. It is simply another way to cover up this modern reality, and though at times it may be harsh, it is what is real that makes one into who he or she shall become. By allowing censorship, one is hurting both those who create media art and the audience for whom the art is meant. Therefore, as quoted from Postrel’s article â€Å"Creative Matrix,† â€Å"Curbing new ideas hurts not only individual creators but the audience for which they create and the posterity that inherits their legacy.† Work Cited: Lowenthal, David. â€Å"Why the Mass Media Must Be Censored.† Furist October 1998. Eisner, Michael E. â€Å"A Little Restraint, Please.† The Wall Street Journal 24 April 1998. Postrel, Virginia. â€Å"Creative Matrix.† Reason August/September 1999. McCormick, Steve. â€Å"Nascar Censorship Reaching New Heights.† 28 Nov 2004 Associated Press. â€Å"Poll: Janet's Revelation No Crime.† 21 Feb 2004. 28 Nov 2004   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Physics, Roller Coasters

Part 1 Roller coasters Additional notes: GPE = m x g x h KE = m x v? The main energy transfers that happen as a car travels along the track from the start of the ride to the end: [1]The rollercoaster car gains gravitational potential energy (GPE) as it travels to the top. Once over the top, the car gains speed as GPE is transferred to kinetic energy (KE). As it travels to the top of another loop, KE is transferred to GPE. Not all the energy is transferred to or from GPE – some is transferred to the surroundings as heat and sound.All moving objects have kinetic energy, KE. The kinetic energy an object has depends on the mass and speed. If the mass doubles, the KE doubles and if the speed doubles, the KE quadruples. Normally energy is lost through sound and heat (friction, air resistance). How the heights of the hills are designed to allow an empty car to reach the end of the ride: [2]The hills are designed so that it is low enough that the momentum of the car from the previous drop carries it up and over the hill.This is why the hills are usually lower towards the end of the ride, because the car has lost momentum due to friction and air resistance. Mainly the consecutive hill must be lower as it will not have enough energy because some of it is lost and sound and heat. Therefore, if the car was to reach the end of the ride, the height of the hills must be lower each consecutive time. How the energy transfers determine the heights of the hills: [4] After the roller coaster is drops from the first hill it does two things with its energy.First, it begins to transform that energy from one form to another–from gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy and from kinetic energy to gravitational potential energy, back and forth. Second, it begins to transfer some of its energy to its environment, mostly in the form of heat and sound. Each time the roller coaster goes downhill, its gravitational potential energy decreases and its kinetic energy incre ases. Each time the roller coaster goes uphill, its kinetic energy decreases and its gravitational potential energy increases.But each transfer of energy isn't complete because some of the energy is lost to heat and sound. Because of this lost energy, the roller coaster can't return to its original height after coasting downhill. That's why each successive hill must be lower than the previous hill. Eventually the roller coaster has lost so much of its original total energy that the ride must end. With so little total energy left, the roller coaster can't have much gravitational potential energy and must be much lower than the top of the first hill.This is why the hills must be a certain height, in order to transfer enough GPE into KE. Bibliography: [1] http://www. bbc. co. uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_ocr_gateway/forces/themeridesrev2. shtml [2] http://science. howstuffworks. com/engineering/structural/roller-coaster3. htm [3] http://www. coasterforce. com/coasters/technical- info/physics-of-a-coaster [4] http://library. thinkquest. org/26455/amuse/roller/roller01. shtml [5] – Collins Additional Sciences B ISBN-13 978-0-00-741531-1 Colin Bell, 2011

Should music file servers on the Internet should be shut down?

This assignment is all about persuasive writing, putting a controversial subject in matter and weighing up all the different viewpoints so I can make a final conclusion on the matter. I am going to write about the controversial matter of Napster and any other file sharing programs used over the Internet to swap music between computers. People send songs over the Internet to other people who can hear them for free once downloaded whenever they like with the recording artist and every other benefactor of record sales losing out. Should music file servers on the Internet should be shut down? Introduction Within the last decade computers have become very important to our lives and home computers, PC's, have become commonplace in most households. The internet has also been going from strength to strength, millions upon millions of people all round the world log on everyday to search for information, send e-mails, talk to people in different countries and a whole lot more. But within the last 3 or 4 years, file servers such as Napster, WinMX and Morpheus to name a few have sprung up allowing people to download their favourite songs straight to their computer without having to pay a penny. Record companies have been unhappy with this and are seeking legal action at the moment, while many people are rejoicing at the concept of free music. What I'm trying to do in this assignment is consider all the views and arguments of both sides and write down my viewpoints on the matter. The downfall of the record industry?! Record companies and artists have been in legal battles recently with file sharing servers such as Napster over the past year or two. They feel that these file sharing servers are illegal and should be shut down, firstly because these are copies of their albums and singles which are being spread about all over the Internet, which is piracy therefore illegal. Secondly people downloading these files aren't paying for these songs, so they are not supporting the music business which is having to manufacture and spend millions on making these records. Thirdly they feel that the increasing number of people using these servers will result in the downfall of the music industry altogether. The record companies just want to make sure that they will have a future, the same with artists but by the looks of it even artists losing their recording contracts wont hurt their futures much as the trend of singers and musicians moving into other celebrity occupations is on the rise such as tv presenter and so on. The record business sees this as a major threat to them, even more than radio, which could be taped off but never had such an impact such as the Internet. They are trying their hardest legally to shut down the music file servers. I don't really believe why the record companies are taking it so far, I don't see them losing out so much anyway because it is a billion dollar business after all. Maybe they should just hope it fades away after a while which I think it will do. Money, Money, Money Many people disagree with the record companies when they say its ‘the downfall of the music industry' because they feel that

buy custom Rockefeller Drug Laws essay

buy custom Rockefeller Drug Laws essay The problem of drug in America cannot be overstated. Estimates suggest that 12.8 million Americans, equivalent to 6% of the population aged 12 years and above use illegal drugs on a regular basis. This is a great improvement on the 1970s all time high. In 1979 the number of regular illegal drug users was 25 million indicating that the number has fallen by 50 percent since then. This is a great achievement. It therefore follows that the problem of drugs was at its peak in the 1970s and authorities were looking for every way to reduce the problem (Wilson par5). The Rockefeller Drug Laws can be understood from these perspective- harsh laws designed to make it unattractive to engage in drugs. The laws were enacted in 1973 under Governor Nelson Rockefeller to whom they are named (Wilson par1). This paper is going to evaluate the impact of the Rockefeller Laws in New York State. The finds out that since the laws became effective in 1973, the judicial system got distorted, the population of African Americans and Latinos in jails has increased sharply, and the petty drug offenders are denied an opportunity for treatment, broken homes, families and communities, economic distress and diversion of government resources from other more deserving sectors to prisons. The immediate effect of the Rockefellers laws is that the tied the hands of the judges in determining the appropriate jail term or even punishment for the offender. The laws effectively took that power from the judge by specifying how jail terms for people found with illegal drugs according to the amounts and class of the drugs. The judge was in this case reduced to a parrot to just read what the law said even if it would be against his better judgment. Being that there are no two cases that are similar and the offenders are also unique, it is an act of injustice to introduce blanket sentences on the accused. Furthermore since the judge cannot take into consideration an individual defendantscircumstances, it remains that the only other way of receiving a more lenient sentence is to cooperate with the prosecution. However this works well with those who are powerful in the trade because it is only them who have access to information regarding drug cartels and the trade. The implication of these is that the powerful individuals , by cooperating with the prosecution get reduced sentences while those at the bottom of the pyramid end up with longer jail terms (Sayegh par2). Emanating from the point above is the disproportionately high number of African Americans and Latinos in jail as a result of breaking these laws. A report from a study done in 2004 showed that the rates of illicit drug use were 8.1% for the whites, 8.1% for Africa-Americans and 7.2% for Latinos. Among the teens ages 12 to 17 years, the rates are highest among the whites as compared to Africa-Americans and Latinos. Yet among those incarcerated in state prisons on account of drug offences, 90% are Africa-American or Latino. The percentage of African-American in prison due to drug offences is 58.5%, for Latinos it is 31.5% while it is 8.9% for the whites. This contrasts with the statistics on racial percentages of drug users. Among these 80% have never been convicted been convicted of a violent offence yet they are sentenced under these archaic laws to remain in prison. The laws are therefore discriminative against the colored people (Wilson par 5,6,7). Being that Rockefellers laws do not give drug users an opportunity to go for treatment, offenders who were under treatment and others who would have benefited from the same are held in prison. Treatment which is far much cheaper and cost-effective is ignored while thousands of dollars are used to sustain the victim in Jail. Among the prison population, 83% of the inmates have an identified substance abuse. Rockefellers are also to blame for many homes, families and communities that have been broken. With such a high number of inmates, one can only imagine the number of homes, families and communities that suffer the loss. In 2002, an estimated eleven thousand people incarcerated for drug related offences were parents of young children including a thousand women. Approximately twenty five thousand children in New York State had their parents behind bars as a result of nonviolent drug charges convictions. Widowed wives and orphaned children are not uncommon among the affected. This will almost automatically be followed by loss of livelihood. Families that previously provided for themselves may be left to suffer due to imprisonment of the bread winner in circumstances where a more lenient punishment would have sufficed. The lost labor is not good for the economy as a whole save for big corporations that utilize prisoners as laborers for meager pay (NLYCU par 5). The laws were reformed in 2004 under the stewardship of New York Assembly and drug law advocates. The reform lowered the maximum sentences from 25 years to nine years. This change was however too little too late; the reforms have had minimal effects on the ground. The laws have not succeeded in stopping inner-city youths from using and dealing with drugs. The problem persists (Sayegh par 10). Legalization of drugs is a question that had lingered in the public domain for a long time. Legalization of the drug will not automatically lead to decreased violence and profit. Legalizing the drugs will make it available to a lot of people some of them school-going children whose mental judgment cannot be trusted. Legalizing the drugs is therefore a very risky affair whose benefits are not worth the risk involved and whose results one can never be sure of. The Rockefellers laws can be said to be bad laws made in response to a genuine and serious concern. It was meant to tackle the rampant problem of drug abuse but due to the fact that the drafters were overzealous about it, the laws became counterproductive. Buy custom Rockefeller Drug Laws essay

List of Platinum Group Metals or PGMs

List of Platinum Group Metals or PGMs The platinum group metals or PGMs are a set of six transition metals that share similar properties. They may be considered a subset of the precious metals. The platinum group metals are clustered together on the periodic table, plus these metals tend to be found together in minerals. The list of PGMs is: Iridium  (Ir)Osmium  (Os)Palladium  (Pd)Platinum  (Pt)Rhodium  (Rh)Ruthenium  (Ru) Alternate Names: The platinum group metals are also known as: PGMs, platinum group, platinum metals, platinoids, platinum group elements or PGEs, platinides, platidises, platinum family Key Takeaways: Platinum Group Metals The platinum group metals or PGMs are a set of six precious metals that are clustered together on the periodic table around the element platinum.The elements share certain desirable properties with platinum. All are noble metals and transition metals in the d-block of the periodic table.The platinum group metals are widely used as catalysts, corrosion-resistant materials, and fine jewelry. Properties of the Platinum Group Metals The six PGMs share similar properties, including: Extremely high density (densest element is a PGM)Highly resistant to wear or tarnishResist corrosion or chemical attackCatalytic propertiesStable electrical propertiesStable at high temperatures Uses of PGMs Several of the platinum group metals are used in jewelry. In particular, platinum, rhodium, and iridium are popular. Because of the price of these metals, they are often used as coatings over softer, more reactive metals, such as silver.PGMs are important catalysts. Platinum catalysts are important in the petrochemical industry. Platinum or platinum-rhodium alloy are used to catalyze partial oxidation of ammonia to produce nitric oxide, an important raw material in chemical production. PGMS are also used as catalysts for organic chemical reactions. The automotive industry uses platinum, palladium, and rhodium in catalytic converters to treat exhaust emissions.Platinum group metals are used as alloying additives.PGMs may be used to make crucibles used to grow single crystals, particularly of oxides.Platinum group metal alloys are used to make electrical contacts, electrodes, thermocouples, and circuits.Iridium and platinum are used in medical implants and pacemakers. Sources of Platinum Group Metals Platinum gets its name from platina, meaning little silver, because the Spaniards considered it an unwanted impurity in silver mining operations in Colombia. For the most part, PGMs are found together in ores. Ultramafic and mafic igneous rocks contain high levels of platinum group metals, the granites contain a low percentage of the metals. The richest deposits include mafic layered intrusions, such as Bushveld Complex. Platinum metals are found in the Ural Mountains, North and South America, Ontario, and other places. Platinum metals are also produced as a by-product of nickel mining and processing. Additionally, the light platinum group metals (ruthenium, rhodium, palladium) form as fission products in nuclear reactors. Extraction Platinum metal extraction processes are typically trade secrets. First, the sample is dissolved in acid. Aqua regia is most often used for this purpose. This produces a solution of metal complexes. Basically, isolation uses the different solubilities and reactivities of the different elements in various solvents. While recovering noble metals from reactors is expensive, the escalating price of the metals has made spent nuclear fuel a viable source of the elements. History Platinum and its alloys occur in native form and were known by pre-Columbian Americans. Despite its early use, platinum does not appear in literature until the 16th century. In 1557, Italian Julius Caesar Scalinger wrote of a mysterious metal found in Central America that was unknown to Europeans. Fun Fact Iron, nickel, and cobalt are three transition metals located above the platinum group metals on the periodic table. They are the only transition metals that are ferromagnetic! Sources Kolarik, Zdenek; Renard, Edouard V. (2005). Potential Applications of Fission Platinoids in Industry. Platinum Metals Review. 49 (2): 79. doi:10.1595/147106705X35263Renner, H.; Schlamp, G.; Kleinwchter, I.; Drost, E.; Là ¼schow, H. M.; Tews, P.; Panster, P.; Diehl, M.; et al. (2002). Platinum group metals and compounds. Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley. doi:10.1002/14356007.a21_075Weeks, M. E. (1968). Discovery of the Elements (7 ed.). Journal of Chemical Education. pp. 385–407. ISBN 0-8486-8579-2.Woods, Ian (2004). The Elements: Platinum. Benchmark Books. ISBN 978-0-7614-1550-3.Xiao, Z.; Laplante, A. R. (2004). Characterizing and recovering the platinum group minerals- a review. Minerals Engineering. 17 (9–10): 961–979. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2004.04.001

Problem question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Problem question - Essay Example Jessica knows through other employees that a position will be open very soon but has been advised by Harrington that they ‘do not hire agency workers.’ Rachel has sought advice due to the fact that she is pregnant and considering employment options. She would like to know what her rights are to maternity leave and if there are any conditions allowing flexible scheduling before she applies for a position through Kent University as a part time accountant. It is very likely that Jessica is currently working under a ‘contract for service.’ This means that as an agency employee she is entitled to certain rights, those rights consisting of breaks during a work assignment, minimum wage, paid holidays, no unlawful deductions from pay (DirectGov), protection under the health and safety laws and freedom from discrimination in any manner. Jessica states that Nursebank has been bullying her and she would like to become employed four days a week directly with Harrington. Harrington does have an upcoming position but Jessica was told that they do not hire ‘agency workers.’ Jessica needs advice as to if this is against the discrimination policies that are legally in place. There are two factors here to consider and examine when reviewing Jessica’s complaints. The issue of Jessica’s bullying should first be explored. Bullying in the workplace can be described as being constantly picked on, ridiculed, humiliated, being overworked in comparison to other workers (Direct Gov), passed over for promotions and being threatened with dismissal. Jessica did not specify exactly how she is being bullied but these examples are not all-inclusive. Bullying is protected against through harassment and discrimination laws. Employers can be held liable for these behaviors through legal proceedings. It is important to advise Jessica that the first step she should take is to report the bullying. Review Nursebanks policies and procedures for deal ing with worker harassment and discrimination. It will become especially important that she has initially consulted and followed company procedure for reporting these actions should Jessica want to file a grievance against Nursebank. The ACAS statutory code of practice on grievance and discipline is issued under section 199 of the ‘Trade Union and Labor Relations Act of 1992’ (TSO). This sets out to establish guidelines for policy and procedure involved in grievances though the code does not necessarily need be followed exact but the employment tribunal will consider this code strongly in any cases brought up. Jessica should expect Nursebank to act promptly and consistently in investigating her complaints. Jessica has the right to be represented by her trade union, if she has one, or anyone she should use during any meetings or discussions or formal talks regarding her complaint. If the decision that the company makes in dealing with Jessica’s issue of being bull ied does not resolve the issue she can then proceed further and appeal the decision. Legal actions can be taken if there is no relief from the claim, though I would advise that Jessica ensure she has done everything possible with the grievance and appeal process so that should she need to file a suit against Nursebank she will have sufficient evidence that they have been negligent or libel. Mediation by a

Counselling and Sexual Orientation Research Paper

Counselling and Sexual Orientation - Research Paper Example Moreover, counselors also are guided by their own morals and religious beliefs. For example, a counselor with a religious background may not be willing to attend to issues of sexual orientation for gay and lesbians. Attending to them would amount to going against his ethical principle. However, this is not usually the case because counseling involves helping those people who are in need and for which therapeutic services would help improves on their health. A Christian fundamentalist counselor is faced with the ethical issue while dealing with cases of gay culture and homosexual behaviors. Christianity rebukes and discourages homosexual and lesbianism and so their counselors would not be willing to attend to the case resulting from such indulgence. The issue of morality is always a topical issue and has evolved to a more complex issue between individuals codes of conduct (Ethics and Counselling). Ethical counseling is among the complex discussion that revolves in the discipline due to the nature of the client and counselors background. Many countries do not have strict laws that guide counseling profession. However, the use of ethical standard is done to ensure that quality services are provided by all counselors. Moreover, counselors are trained of the value of protecting client’s confidentiality. Therefore, counselor should meet the demand of their clients no matter their moral standing because they would minimize danger and aggravation of the problem. Moreover, the ethical of secrecy protect counselors facing accusation of serving the gay community. According to Daniluk and Haverkamp ethical counseling is based on the concept of self-interest, beneficence, autonomy, non-maleficence, fidelity and justice (Ethics and Counselling). Therefore, therapeutic therapy on sexual orientation in guided by the above concepts and it would be better if a

FINANCIAL STRUCTURE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

FINANCIAL STRUCTURE - Essay Example At this stage it becomes essential to address the question of weather financial structure matter for long-run economic growth? Several economists and policy-makers have tried to answer this question and have concentrated on the relative merits of intermediary- versus market-based financial systems. The debate is more than a century old and it commenced with reference to Germany and the United Kingdom in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Dolar and Meh, 2002). Financial Data and its Importance Financial data correspond to the existing results of the company's strategy and structure. Even though analyzing financial statements can be quite complex, a general idea of a company's financial position can be determined through the use of ratio analysis. Financial performance ratios can be calculated from the balance sheet and income statement. These ratios can be classified into five different subgroups: profit ratios, liquidity ratios, activity ratios, leverage ratios, and shareholder-return ratios. These ratios should be compared with the industry average or the company's prior years of performance. Profit Ratios Profit ratios are used to calculate the efficiency with which the company uses its resources. The more efficient the company, the greater is its profitability. It is useful to compare a company's profitability against that of its major competitors in its industry. In addition, the change in a company's profit ratios over time tells whether its performance is improving or declining.

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Wireless Internet

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Wireless Internet Wireless Internet is also called Wireless Web, Mobile Internet, and Internet Wireless. Wireless Internet means access the internet through a wireless devices, For Example laptop, cellular telephone , PDA, etc , Using Wireless internet any person can do their day today activities like e-mail, e-banking, communication, conferencing, etc.., In addition to that can be accessed weather and travel information, etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ any where any time. Advantages of wireless Internet Fast installation Efficient use of resources Less susceptible to disruption Capacity can be added, removed or reallocated more easily To enable users to bring their own laptop, therefore reducing the cost of owning many PCs. To enable you to easily move PCs. Disadvantages of wireless Internet Cost Technology is newer and more expensive for some applications Speed Radio Frequency (RF) characteristics make high data transfer rates more difficult with wireless than with wired Security Wireless signals are relatively easy to intercept Frequency spectrum saturation Scope Of The Survey What are the current wireless internet technologies Give detailed view about each technology Compare each technology by giving advantages disadvantages of them What are the new trends of wireless internet and the improvements of them with compare to current technologies Current Wireless Internet Technologies LEO IEEE 802.11 IEEE 802.16 LMDS 1G-Analoge Cellular MEO (WIFI) (WIMAX) MMDS 2G-Digital Cellular GSO 2.5/2.75G- (GPRS/EDGE) 3G/3.5G Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e/m) Detailed view about each technology Mobile Wireless Internet Technologies First Generation mobile wireless technology (1G) First Generation mobile wireless technology (1G) are analog , voice-only cellular, telecommunications standards, that were Introduced in the 1980s. One such standard is NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephone), used in Nordic countries, Eastern Europe and Russia. Others include AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) used in the United States, TACS (Total Access Communications System) in the United Kingdom, JTAGS in Japan, C-Netz in West Germany, Radiocom 2000 in France, and RTMI in Italy. Second generation wireless technology(2G) Second generation mobile wireless technology is based on GSM was launched in Finland in the year 1991, 1G technology use analogue radio signals but 2G technology use digital signals to transfer data,but both technologies connect to the tower using digital signals ,In 2G voice call is encoded to digital signals but 1G signals are modulated to higher frequencies like 150 MHz and up. There are three common technologies used by 2G cell-phone networks for transmitting information Time division multiple access (TDMA) -GSM,PDC(japan),iDEN(US,Canada),IS-136(US) Code division multiple access (CDMA) -IS-95(US,Asia) 2.5G(GPRS) The term 2.5G usually describes a 2G cellular system combined with General Packet Radio Services (GPRS). that means it implements a packet-switched network domain in addition to a circuit-switched domain. It can be provide data rates 56 kbit/s-115 kbit/s and also Services like Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) access, Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), and for Internet communication services such as email and World Wide Web access. 2.75G(EDGE) EDGE Defined as GPRS with 8PSK encoding, EDGE was introduced in 2003, EDGE achieves higher data-rates (up to 236.8 kbit/s) Third generation wireless Internet(3G) Third generation mobile wireless technology is based on International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000), 3G is collection of standards mobile telecommunications which includes UMTS, and CDMA2000 with non-mobile wireless standards DECT WiMAX, Compared to 2G and 2.5G services, 3G allows simultaneous use of speech and data services and higher data rates (at least 200 kbit/s). today 3G systems can provide up to 14.0 Mbit/s download speed and 5.8 Mbit/s upload speed. Mobile WiMax(IEEE 802.16e) Mobile WiMAX or 802.16e standard was introduced by the IEEE in late 2005 as real competitor to 3G technologies, However South Korea elected to take a mobile WiMAX compatible standard called wireless broadband (WiBro) to market. WiBro/Mobile WiMAX uses an OFDMAà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢ technology called 1K-FFT. Service for the WiBro/Mobile WiMAX standard is in the 2.3 GHz spectrum range at least in Korea. The technology can be easily adapted to other licensed spectrum. Wireless Wide Area Networking Technologies WIMAX(Interoperability for Microwave Access) Wimax is a telecommunications technology that offers transmission of wireless data via a number of transmission methods; such as portable or fully mobile internet access via point to multipoints links. The current WiMAX revision provides up to 40 Mbit/s which is based on Standard IEEE 802.16, it also called Broadband Wireless Access and it was formed in Mid June 2001 Wireless Local Area Networking Technologies WiFi WiFi uses radio waves to provide wireless high-speed Internet and network connections. WiFi is owned by the organization Wi-Fi Alliance, and it is based on IEEE 802.11 standards. 802.11a transmits at 5 GHz and can be provide data rate up to 54 Mb/s and it uses technology orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM). 802.11b is the slowest and least expensive standard which transmits at 2.4 GHz can be provide data rate up to 11 Mb/s and it uses complementary code keying (CCK) modulation to improve speeds. 802.11g transmits at 2.4 GHz and it can provide data rates up to 54 Mb/s. 802.11g is faster because it uses the same OFDM coding as 802.11a. 802.11n is the newest standard that is widely available and it can achieve data rates up to 140 Mb/s. Fixed Wireless Internet Technologies LMDS (Local Multipoint Distribution System) LMDS is a technology for broadband microwave wireless transmission direct from a local antenna to homes and businesses within distance 1.5 miles (2.4 km) . LMDS offers a download speed up to 1.5 Gb/s and 200 Mb/s upload speed. LMDS commonly operates on frequencies across the 26 GHz and 29 GHz bands. In Europe, (ETSI) is equivalent technology. In Canada, it is called Local Multipoint Communication Service (LMCS) and it is based on IEEE 802.16.1 standards. MMDS(Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service) MMDS provides digital video- and Internet- (including VoIP) access using various over-the-air microwave frequencies. Services are provided within distance 20 miles or 32 km from the transmit site. MMDS commonly operates on frequencies across the 2 GHz and 3 GHz. The MMDS band was separated into eleven channels and Each channel was capable of 10 Mbit/s Satellite wireless internet technologies Communication via satellite can be done using one or two way dish. Satellite dish was placed minimizing the interference with other satellites . the dial-up connection can be used for uploading purposes and the satellite internet connection can be used for downloading data. Mostly, the two-way communication dish is preferred by residential users and small businesses. The two-way internet service is characterized by Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and single channel per carrier (SCPC). There are three satellite constellations, GEO (geostationary earth orbit), LEO (low earth orbit) and MEO (middle earth orbit). low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite is placed in between 160 2,000 km above the Earths surface. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO), satellite place in between 2,000-35,786 km above the Earth surface High Earth Orbit(HEO) , satellites place in between 35,786 km above earth surface Comparison of wireless internet technologies Compare some wireless internet technologies Standard Base Technology Usage Radio Technology Download speed(Mb/s) Upload speed(Mb/s) Additional details EDGE Evolution GSM Mobile Internet TDMA/FDD 1.9 0.9 3GPP Release 7 UMTS ,W-CDMA HSDPA,HSUPA HSPA+ }UMTS/3GSM }General 3G CDMA/FDD CDMA/FDD/MIMO 0.384 14.4 56 0.384 5.76 22 HSDPA widely using today, Typical download rates 2Mbit/s, upload ~200 kbit/ HSPA+ download up to 56 Mbit/s. UMTS-TDD UMTS/3GSM Mobile Internet CDMA/TDD 16 16 Use 16QAM modulation like HSDPA+HSUPA 1xRTT CDMA2000 Mobile phone CDMA 0.144 0.144 EV-DO Succeeded Wi-Fi 802.11 (11n) Mobile Internet OFDM/MIMO 288.9 can gain 600 using 40Mhz channel width throughput and/or spectra efficiency (310km 382km Mobile WiMAX 802.16e Mobile Internet MIMO-SOFDMA 144 144 WiMAX update to IEEE 802.16m expect download speed up to 1 Gb/s fixed speeds LTE UMTS/4GSM General 4G OFDMA/MIMO/SC-FDMA 360 80 LTE update to LTE-Advanced expect rates of at least 1 Gb/s fixed speeds and 100 Mb/s to mobile users http://mobilania.com/articles/wimax/what-is-wimax/ Compare throughput of the wireless internet technologies Standard Maximum Download Speed(Mb/s) Maximum Download Speed(Mb/s) coverage Typical Download Speed(Mb/s) GSM GPRS Class 10 0.0856 0.0428 ~16 mi 0.014 GSM EDGE type 2 0.4736 0.4736 ~16 mi 0.034 GSM EDGE Evolution 1.8944 0.9472 ~16 mi UMTS W-CDMA HSDPA 14.400 0.3840 up to 124 mi 4.1 (Tre 2007) UMTS W-CDMA HSUPA 14.400 5.7600 up to 124 mi UMTS W-CDMA HSPA+ 42.000 22.000 up to 124 mi UMTS-TDD 16.000 16.000 CDMA RTT 1x 0.3072 0.1536 ~18 mi 0.125 WiMAX: 802.16e 70.000 70.000 ~4 mi >10 WiFi: 802.11a 54.000 54.000 WiFi: 802.11b 11.000 11.000 ~30 m 2 WiFi: 802.11g 54.000 54.000 ~30 m 10 WiFi: 802.11n 200.00 200.00 ~50 m 40 LTE 326.4 86.4 Future trends of wireless internet Why world move towards new wireless technologies Requirements of the people are increasing day by day also so they need to communicate and get connected with each other and get information at any where any time, that increase the demand for mobile wireless technologies.When the demand increase the major wireless service providers keep on monitoring the growth of new mobile wireless technologies. North America, Europe and Asia Pacific total mobile uses in 2010 is expected to grow up to 2500 million and penetration will be greater than 50 percent So to survive from this kind of demand growth, need new wireless technology with higher capacity and higher data rates, so world move towards 4G,LTE Advance, IEEE 802.20,IEEE 802.16m technologies. (T.Saito et al ,2009) Trend towards 4G over 3G 3G network not compatible with demand of higher data rates so wireless world move towards fourth generation (4G) wireless networks, it will expect to support above 100 Mbps data rates and also high quality video and audio than 3G technology because of 4G networks consist of some advance technologies like Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) , 3G networks are based on ITU-T, IMT2000 standards but 4G standards are not defined yet. OFDM and OFDMA can be used to effectively allocate resources of the network to multiple users. In addition to that 4G is expected to provide higher security and lower data transmission latency than 3G. The emerging 4G will be fully packet-switched network. All the elements of the network must be digital and also 4G services have some key features like adaptability and dynamism. Throughput of the 3G only greater than 2, but throughput of 4G is greater than 200, moreover operating frequencies of 3G is 900,1800,1900,2100(MHz) but 4G operates on 2-8(MHz) frequency , so data transmission is more efficient in 4G than 3G, in addition to that signal coverage of 3G technology is greater than or equals 6 miles but in 4G signal coverage is greater than or equals 30 miles. Trend towards IEEE 802.20 -Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA) The IEEE 802.20 is designed for support internet client in vehicle which is moving speed up to 250 Km per hour . IEEE 802.20 supports Qos to give good quality, low-latency services like IEEE 802.16e, and also like IEEE 802.16e its uplink and downlink are synchronous but in 3G uplink and downlink are Asynchronous. IEEE 802.20 is support global roaming facility with the support of 3G, but with compare to IEEE 802.18e it only support local roaming facility. IEEE 802.20 made up of combining good features of 3G and 1EEE 802.16e and reducing the limitations of them. Trend towards LTE-Advance LTE uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) technology to gain good frequency performance, and also it uses single-carrier FDMA(Frequency division Multiple Access) technology, LTE support Multiple Input Multiple Output( MIMO) technology in order to gain good spectrum usage and increase coverage. LTE also support SU-MIMO(Single User MIMO) and MU-MIMO(Multiple User MIMO) and also LTE support spectrum between 1.4-20 MHz. Latency of the LTE is very low (10-20ms) with compare to other technologies. Low latency is very important feature for time critical application like online gaming, etc , And also LTE only use packet switched domain which leads simple protocol architecture. LTE-Advanced can be defined as LTE plus IMT-Advance requirements and it is backward compatible with LTE , With compare to LTE, LTE-Advanced is support collection of multiple carriers which help to gain higher transmission rate with compare to LTE using multiple frequency blocks each have 20 MHz bandwidth. And also LTE-Advanced is support DFT-S-OFDMA combining with aggregation improves user throughput and uplink capacity. With compare to LTE, LTE advance also support SU-MIMO but will have eight uplink and four downlink which improve user throughput and spectrum usage. LTE advance also introduce relay stations to improve coverage, newly introduced technology for LTE-Advanced is relay stations which expand the signal coverage. When compare Peak Spectrum usage efficiencies(b/s/hz) of LTE and LTE-Advanced, Peak Spectrum usage efficiency of LTE is greater than 5 in downlink and greater than 2.5 in uplink, but Peak Spectrum usage efficiency of LTE-Advanced is greater than 30 in downlink and greater than 15 in uplink. When Consider average spectrum usage efficiencies(b/s/hz), LTE has 1.6-2 spectrum efficiency in downlink and 0.66-1.0 in uplink, but in LTE Advanced has 2.4-3.7 Average spectrum efficiency in downlink and 1.2-2.0 in uplink. So Peak and Average Spectrum efficiencies both uplink and downlink in LTE-advance is greater than LTE . Operating Bandwidth of the LTE is 1.4-2.0(MHz) and Operating Bandwidth of LTE-Advanced is greater than 100(MHz), Connection setup delay of the LTE is greater than 100 and, in LTE Advance it is greater than 50, so LTE-Advance is more efficient than LTE Because of advantages of LTE-Advanced researchers found that world will move towards LTE-Advance technology over LTE. Trend of IEEE 802.16m over IEEE 802.16e Current WiMAX technology is based on IEEE 802.16e but next generation WiMAX will follow IEEE 802.16m standard which is extended version of IEEE 802.16e. so it will support basic WiMAX technologies like OFDM, TDMA/FDMA, MIMO, in addition to that, it will be also introduced extended MIMO technologies. IEEE 802.16e is using two antennas to transfer and receive data, but IEEE 802.16e will use 8 antennas to transfer and receive data moreover it will support SU-MIMO technology which help to gain high data transmission rates, furthermore, MU-MIMO, Multi-BS MIMO technologies are being considered. And also Multi carrier technology is being introduced to support higher throughput. Hierarchical frame structure is being included in IEEE 802.16m, which is being consisted of super frames and sub frames to improve spectrum usage efficiency. It is being decided to introduce another new technology is femtocell technology which improve the throughput, in addition to that multihop relay system is supported to the IEEE 802.16m in order to overcome low signal strength in indoor due to the loss of penetration through building, so multihop relay system increase signal strength and that leads wide signal area, high indoor troughput. Future Of WIFI When consider the recent history of WIFI in 2009-2010 main target of WIFI was access points and laptops, but 2010-2011 it is and it will be mobile devices like mobile phones, PDA , etc, then 2011-2012 main target of WIFI will be consumer electronics like TV, Cameras, etc, 2012-2013 and beyond main target of WIFI will be embedded systems. That is the deployment road map of WIFI, more over current WIFI technologies are IEEE 802.11n and IEEE 802.11w, main purposes of these technologies are Throughput efficiency and security, future WIFI technologies will be IEEE 802.11v, IEEE 802.11s, IEEE 802.11aa, IEEE 802.11ac, IEEE 802.11ad, Main purpose of IEEE 802.11v will be power efficiency, and Main purpose of IEEE 802.11s will be compatible with mesh networking and Main Purpose of IEEE 802aa/802ad will be high throughput.IEEE 802.11v will expect to available to public in end of 2010, IEEE 802.11s and IEEE 802.11aa will be available in 2011, and IEEE 802.11ac/ad will be available 2012 0r beyond . IEEE 802.11s will be capable of using mesh standards, self configure in to multi-hop wireless technologies where access point from different manufactures. And also IEEE 802.11s support different functional requirements of Applications like, some Applications require large scale high throughput and some require quick setup. IEEE 802.11v Systems to control the clients connect to it which leads to efficient use of system infrastructure so using that can improve performance of the system. Conclusion Internet was introduced early 1980 but it became more popular after 1990, from that day wireless internet technologies have became more and more popular until today, it will be more popular in the future to match with the complex life style of the people , that means when the world develop with other fields, requirements of the man is increasing rapidly when the requirements are increasing, Collection of data, services over data, communication requirements is being increased , so data can be able to access any where any time and also any person can be able connect other people any where any time to exchange ideas, that is why world move towards wireless technologies, because of its mobility, so demand of wireless technology is being increased so existing wireless technologies couldnt bear such a high capacity and cant provide higher data rates and bandwidth. For a solution to that problem we can see how 1G,2G,3G,3GPP LTE, etc like new technologies have introduced and became more popular time to time to satisfy communication and data requirements of developing world, when reading the document can be found out how technology increase and how data rates, capacity, bandwidth has increased according to the improvements of the technology, but performance requirements are not the only reason for introduce new technologies, some people need low cost solutions with fair data rates, for a example WIFI IEEE 802.11b over 802.11a which 80211b is cheaper than 802.11a. Today, demand for the wireless technologies are increasing more rapidly, to survive from that, in future world will move towards 4G,IEEE 802.16m,LTE-Advanced,IEEE 802.20 technologies over current wireless technologies like 3G, LTE, WIFI, WiMAX, etc, because current wireless technologies cannot provide higher capacities and data rates that the world is asking in future. According to the document wireless technologies also have disadvantages like security issues, data rate issues, cost issues over wired technologies, but over that disadvantages, people cannot survive without wireless technologies because of the reasons above mentioned.